A significant aspect of Gustav Holst’s (1874–1934) compositional oeuvre was informed by his engagement with non-Western musical traditions, philosophies, and cultural motifs. This interest in the exotic was not merely a superficial appropriation but a deeply intellectual and spiritual exploration, influenced by his exposure to Indian philosophy, Sanskrit literature, and Eastern musical structures.
Gustav Holst: Sāvitri, Op. 25 – Sāvitri! Sāvitri! I am Death (Felicity Palmer, mezzo-soprano; Stephen Varcoe, bass; City of London Sinfonia; Richard Hickox, cond.)
Intercultural Inspirations
Gustav Holst
Holst’s engagement with these elements reflects broader trends in European art music during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, where composers “sought inspiration beyond the Western classical tradition to invigorate their creative output.”
This approach was not without critique, and scholars have noted that his “portrayals of non-Western cultures sometimes relied on romanticised or stereotypical representation, reflecting the colonial lens prevalent in Edwardian Britain.” However, his approach was marked by a genuine curiosity and respect for the philosophical and aesthetic principles of the cultures he explored, distinguishing his work from more exploitative forms of musical orientalism.
Gustav Holst: Sāvitri, Op. 25 – Greeting to thee, my loving Sāvitri! (Philip Langridge, tenor; Felicity Palmer, mezzo-soprano; City of London Sinfonia; Richard Hickox, cond.)
Gustav Holst: Sāvitri, Op. 25 – Once I knew maya (Felicity Palmer, mezzo-soprano; Philip Langridge, tenor; City of London Sinfonia; Richard Hickox, cond.)
Gustav Holst: Sāvitri, Op. 25 – I am with thee; my arms are round thee (Felicity Palmer, mezzo-soprano; City of London Sinfonia; Richard Hickox, cond.)
Scholarly Pursuit
Gustav Holst
Holst’s interest in Indian culture and Hindu philosophy began around the turn of the century. Dissatisfied with the conventions of Western music, Holst turned to Sanskrit texts, teaching himself the language to translate works such as the Rigveda and the Bhagavad Gita.
Although he never became fluent and had to look up every word in the dictionary, he nevertheless translated 20 hymns from the Rig Veda and the long poem by Kalidasa. In addition, he wrote librettos for two operas on Hindu subjects, Sita (1900–06) and Sāvitri (1908–9).
Furthermore, Holst’s exposure to Indian music was facilitated by his interactions with figures like Maud MacCarthy, an ethnomusicologist and authority on Indian music, who introduced him to raga-based scales and microtonal inflections.
Holst’s studies occurred within the context of British imperialism, and while his approach was considered earnest, “he lacked the critical lens that might characterise modern intercultural studies.” Some scholars suggest that his exposure was “severely limited or mediated through Western interpreters like McCarthy.”
Gustav Holst: Sāvitri, Op. 25 – Welcome, Lord! Thou art called the Just One (Felicity Palmer, mezzo-soprano; Richard Hickox Singers; City of London Sinfonia; Richard Hickox, cond.)
Gustav Holst: Sāvitri, Op. 25 – Thine is the holiness (Stephen Varcoe, bass; Richard Hickox Singers; City of London Sinfonia; Richard Hickox, cond.)
Sāvitri
Gustav Holst’s Sāvitri
Holst wrote both the libretto and music for Sāvitri, and it premiered on 5 December 1916 at the Wellington Hall in London. The libretto draws directly from the Mahabharata but simplifies the narrative to focus on Sāvitri’s confrontation with Death. The opera reflects Hindu ideas of destiny, free will, and spiritual transcendence, but Holst also infused it with universal themes to appeal to Western audiences.
The libretto navigates a dual identity, blending Indian spirituality with British cultural sensibilities. It tells the story of Sāvitri, a princess who marries Satyavan, knowing he is fated to die within a year. When Death comes for Satyavan, Sāvitri’s devotion and wisdom persuade Death to grant her a wish, through which she secures her husband’s life. While rooted in Hindu mythology, Holst frames Sāvitri’s triumph as a universal victory of love and courage, making the story accessible to Western audiences.
Gustav Holst: Sāvitri, Op. 25 – Stay! Grant me this boon! (Felicity Palmer, mezzo-soprano; Stephen Varcoe, bass; Richard Hickox Singers; City of London Sinfonia; Richard Hickox, cond.)
Gustav Holst: Sāvitri, Op. 25 – Ah! Death, the Just One (Felicity Palmer, mezzo-soprano; Richard Hickox Singers; City of London Sinfonia; Richard Hickox, cond.)
Musical Innovation
Savitri and Satyavan
The music is a striking example of musical economy and cross-cultural innovation, blending Western modal harmonies with subtle evocations of Indian aesthetics. This stylistic dualism, as a scholar has noted, “juxtaposes Indian-inspired modalities with Western tonal resolutions.”
Vocal lines are declamatory, with Sāvitri’s lyrical yet restrained melodies reflecting her spiritual depth, while Death’s austere, low tones evoke menace. Though not directly using ragas or tala, Holst incorporates drones and pentatonic scales to hint at Indian music, while an offstage female chorus, representing Maya, uses wordless vocalising to capture an ethereal, devotional quality.
According to scholars, “Holst’s music in Sāvitri is less about mimicking Indian sounds and more about capturing the spiritual essence of Hindu philosophy through Western idioms.”
At its 1916 premiere, Sāvitri received mixed but intrigued responses. Critics praised its originality but found its austerity and Eastern influences challenging. The Musical Times noted the opera’s “strange, haunting beauty” but remarked that its “Oriental flavour” puzzled audiences accustomed to Verdi or Wagner.”
The opera’s legacy lies in its influence on later composers of chamber opera, such as Benjamin Britten, and Holst’s attempt to synthesise Eastern and Western musical idioms “anticipated later developments in ethnomusicology and cross-cultural composition.”
Gustav Holst: Sāvitri, Op. 25 – Sāvitri! Is it thou? (Philip Langridge, tenor; Felicity Palmer, mezzo-soprano; Richard Hickox Singers; City of London Sinfonia; Richard Hickox, cond.)
Gustav Holst: Sāvitri, Op. 25 – I am with thee, my arms around thee (Stephen Varcoe, bass; Felicity Palmer, mezzo-soprano; City of London Sinfonia; Richard Hickox, cond.)
Beni Mora
Gustav Holst’s Beni Mora
Holst’s spiritual explorations extended beyond India to other non-Western traditions, as evidenced in Beni Mora of 1910. Holst never enjoyed the best of health, and his condition was aggravated by overwork, mainly prompted by a lack of funds. He was suffering from asthma and neuritis, contributing to an overall sense of depression. It was obvious that some time in a warmer and more relaxing environment might improve matters, and his good friend Ralph Vaughan Williams paid for Holst to visit Algiers.
Holst left in April 1908, and the visit exposed him to the vibrant street music and cultural milieu of Algiers and the surrounding areas, including the oasis town of Biskra, where he encountered local musicians and dancers.
In a letter to his wife, Holst described Algeria as a “queer mix of East and West,” noting the “barbaric yet captivating sounds of street bands and bamboo flute players.” Holst notated some phrases, which became the basis for a composition subtitled “Oriental Suite.”
Gustav Holst: Beni Mora, Op. 29, No. 1 “First Dance” (BBC Symphony Orchestra; Malcolm Sargent, cond.)
Berber Tribe
Biskra Oasis of Beni Mora
The title Beni Mora refers to a Berber tribe in the Algerian Sahara, and also to a fictional place called “Beni Mora,” in a novel by Robert Hichens titled The Garden of Allah. To be sure, Holst’s music is more broadly inspired by the urban and rural sounds of Algiers and Biskra. Using sketches and melodic snippets, Holst began composition after his return home. He scored his suite for large orchestra, including the bass oboe and an array of percussion, including tambourine, cymbals, and bass drum.
Not to belabour the point, but Holst’s approach was not ethnomusicological in the modern sense as he did not systematically transcribe Algerian music but rather absorbed its atmosphere and selectively adapted its elements into a Western orchestral framework. A scholar writes, “the suite reflects the orientalist imagination prevalent in European art, where non-Western cultures were often depicted as exotic and primitive.”
Scored in three movements, the “First Dance” captures the mysticism of the Arab world through a vibrant interplay of lively rhythms and reflective passages, with woodwinds adding an exotic flavour. The “Second Dance” opens with a solo bassoon answered by strings and supported by gentle timpani.
Gustav Holst: Beni Mora, Op. 29, No. 1 “Second Dance” (BBC Symphony Orchestra; Malcolm Sargent, cond.)
The third movement, “In the Street of the Ouled Naïls,” opens subtly with low strings, introducing a flute tune that is repeated 163 times. This repetitive motif, inspired by Algerian street music, underpins varied orchestral textures, with dramatic percussion, soaring strings, and growling basses. The brass eventually amplifies the tune, building to an overwhelming climax.
The work was given a cool reception at its premiere in London on 1 May 1912, with one critic suggesting the “incarnation of Biskra’s dancing girls in Langham Place.” And Vaughan Williams wrote, “if it had been played in Paris rather than London, it would have given its composer a European reputation, and played in Italy would probably have caused a riot.”
Holst’s fascination with non-Western influences, juxtaposed by distinctly English musical idioms, reveals a composer with deep roots in his native musical traditions while exploring cross-cultural inspirations. His interest was a pivotal aspect of his compositional identity, driven by a quest for musical and spiritual renewal. By blending these influences with his modernist sensibilities, Holst did craft a unique sonic world.
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Gustav Holst: Beni Mora, Op. 29, No. 1 “In the Streets of the Ouled Naïls” (BBC Symphony Orchestra; Malcolm Sargent, cond.)
